every society has its outsiders—those deemed suspicious, dangerous, or simply “different” from the accepted norms. in early modern europe, marginal groups ranged from religious minorities and vagrants to accused witches and sexual deviants. the treatment of these individuals was not uniform; some were persecuted brutally, others merely ostracized, while some found ways to thrive in the gray areas of legality and morality.
the fear of deviants was fueled by a mix of religious dogma, social anxieties, and political control, shaping laws, punishments, and cultural perceptions for centuries. but who were these outsiders, and why were they feared?
religious outsiders: heretics, jews, and “infidels”
religious deviance was one of the most unforgivable sins in early modern europe. with christianity as the foundation of societal order, anyone who challenged religious orthodoxy was seen as a threat to both the state and public morality.
• jews: anti-semitic stereotypes were deeply ingrained. jews were accused of ritual murders, poisoning wells, and spreading disease. many were confined to ghettos, such as the famous venetian ghetto, which symbolized both their marginalization and economic necessity .
• protestants and catholics: the reformation and counter-reformation turned europe into a battlefield of religious persecution. catholics saw protestants as heretics, while protestants accused catholics of corruption, sexual immorality, and secret political conspiracies .
• muslims and “infidels”: in spain, the moriscos (muslim converts to christianity) were suspected of secretly practicing islam, leading to their expulsion in the early 17th century. similar fears surrounded ottoman and north african traders, who were viewed as potential spies or pirates .
these groups were often expelled, forced to convert, or subjected to legal restrictions, reinforcing the idea that religious purity was synonymous with civic loyalty.
vagrants and the criminal underworld: fear of the poor
poverty was not just an economic issue—it was a moral and social danger. the increasing number of vagrants, beggars, and displaced peasants in cities led to widespread fears that these people formed dangerous criminal networks.
• the “dangerous poor”: authorities believed that vagrants were potential thieves, arsonists, and rapists, reinforcing the stereotype of the idle, immoral beggar .
• forced labor and workhouses: countries like the netherlands pioneered the workhouse system, where the poor were put to work under harsh conditions. this model spread to england, where the bridewells (houses of correction) became notorious for their cruelty .
• branding and ostracization: some marginal groups, including plague workers and prostitutes, were branded, badged, or forced to wear distinctive clothing, marking them as dishonorable .
at the same time, the poor were essential to urban economies, leading to a paradoxical system where they were both feared and exploited.
witches and the fear of the occult
the witch trials of the 16th and 17th centuries were among the most brutal expressions of social fear and persecution. women, particularly widows, healers, and midwives, were targeted under the accusation of practicing maleficium (harmful magic).
• women as witches: up to 80% of those accused of witchcraft were women, often those who lived alone or had conflicts with their neighbors .
• satanic panic: authorities believed that witches had pacts with the devil, attended sabbats, and engaged in infanticide and sexual orgies, reinforcing patriarchal fears about female independence .
• weather magic and the “little ice age”: crop failures and natural disasters during the little ice age fueled witch hunts, as witches were blamed for hailstorms, droughts, and failed harvests .
while some regional courts were more skeptical, in places like germany and scotland, trials led to mass executions. the shift toward rationalism and legal reform eventually brought an end to large-scale witch hunts in the late 17th century.
sexual deviance and “moral crimes”
sexuality was heavily policed in early modern europe, and those who deviated from the accepted norms faced persecution.
• sodomy and same-sex relations: homosexual acts were condemned as unnatural sins, but enforcement varied. in venice and florence, young men engaging in same-sex acts were sometimes tolerated, while older men who did not “transition” into heterosexual marriage faced prosecution .
• lesbianism and gender nonconformity: female same-sex relationships were often invisible, but cases like that of elana/elano de céspedes—a woman who lived as a man—provoked inquisition trials due to concerns about gender roles and religious order .
• prostitution and the criminalization of sex work: prostitution, once regulated and taxed, was increasingly driven underground in the 16th century. while brothels were closed down in many cities, authorities still relied on prostitutes for court testimony in cases of male impotence .
despite the harsh moral codes, erotic literature and pornography flourished in the 18th century, demonstrating a growing contradiction between private behavior and public morality.
the “monstrous” and the freak shows of early modern europe
the early modern period had a morbid fascination with deformity, disability, and human anomalies.
• fools and dwarfs at court: european courts kept fools and dwarfs as entertainers and symbols of power. some, like the famous dwarf jeffery hudson, gained celebrity status .
• monstrous births: deformed babies were seen as divine warnings or demonic omens. some were put on public display as curiosities .
• the rise of medical curiosity: while religious interpretations of disability persisted, the scientific revolution brought new interest in understanding “monstrosity”, shifting attitudes toward a more analytical approach .
these “outsiders” occupied a strange position in society—both feared and celebrated, objects of both disgust and wonder.
conclusion: control, fear, and the boundaries of society
the treatment of marginal and deviant groups in early modern europe was shaped by deep-rooted fears, economic interests, and power structures. whether through expulsion, persecution, or forced assimilation, the authorities sought to maintain order by defining and controlling these “outsiders.”
yet, despite the oppression, many of these groups found ways to resist, adapt, and even thrive—whether through underground economies, cultural subversions, or quiet acts of defiance.
today, the echoes of these early modern exclusions and prejudices remain, reminding us that history’s outcasts were often its most resilient survivors.
bibliography
roberts, penny. “marginals and deviants.” in the european world 1500–1800: an introduction to early modern history, edited by beat kümin, 57–67. 3rd ed. new york: routledge, 2018.
